Final Task

Question 1

In social contract theory, there discussion about negative right and positive right. Negative right is acknowledgement by other people that you can exercises your right at free will. Example of this right is freedom of worship, and private properties. Meanwhile, positive right is a obligation by others to do something on your behalf, but may be restricted based on circumstances. This meaning that, others must the right for once you qualified for the right. Example of this right is military and police protection from violent, health care, and public education. Thus, by comparing the meaning of these rights, both rights are protecting and benefiting to your social care. However, this both can conflicting each others such as a thief may have a negative obligation not to steal, and a police officer may have a negative obligation not to tackle people, but a police officer tackling the thief easily meets the burden of proof that he acted justifiably, since his was a breach of a lesser obligation and negated the breach of a greater obligation.[1]

Question 2

Identity theft is a form of stealing someone's identity in which someone pretends to be someone else by assuming that person's identity, typically in order to access resources or obtain credit and other benefits in that person's name. The victim of identity theft (here meaning the person whose identity has been assumed by the identity thief) can suffer adverse consequences if they are held accountable for the perpetrator's actions. Identity theft occurs when someone uses your personally identifying information, like your name, Social Security number, or credit card number, without your permission, to commit fraud or other crimes. [2]

Example of identity theft:

• Medical identity theft
  Medical identity theft occurs when someone seeks medical care under the identity of another person. In addition to risks of financial harm common to all forms of identity theft, the thief's medical history may be added to the victim's medical records. Inaccurate information in the victim's records is difficult to correct and may affect future doubt or cause doctors relying on the misinformation to deliver inappropriate medical care.
• Criminal identity theft
  When a criminal fraudulently identifies himself to police as another individual at the point of arrest, it is sometimes referred to as "Criminal Identity Theft." In some cases criminals have previously obtained state-issued identity documents using credentials stolen from others, or have simply presented fake ID. 

Question 3

5 types of software piracy:

1. Soft-lifting
   purchasing a single licensed copy of software and loading it onto several computers contrary to the license terms. For example, sharing software with friends, co-workers and others.
2. Uploading and downloading
   making unauthorized copies of copyrighted software available to end users connected by modem to online service providers and/or the Internet.
3. Software counterfeiting
   illegally duplicating and selling copyrighted software in a form designed to make it appear legitimate.
4. Hard disk loading
   Installing unauthorized copies of software onto the hard disks of personal computers, often as an incentive for the end user to buy the hardware from that particular hardware dealer.
5. Renting
   Unauthorized selling of software for temporary use, like you would a video.

Question 4

2 types of digital divide: [3]

• The digital divide of first degree is a material matter: the absence of physical access to a computer or the internet.
• The digital divide of the second degree: the social imbalance created by differences in acquired computer skills. 

References:
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft
[3] http://www.samenlevingentechnologie.be/ists/en/projects/allprojects/digital_divide.html

Social and Professional Issues: Society’s Ethical Stance on the Use of CCTV in Public Places.

Introduction

What are CCTVs? CCTV is defined by Rouse as “… a TV system in which signals are not publicly distributed but are monitored, primarily for surveillance and security purposes.” (2012).
The use of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) for the purpose of surveillance has been a common practice amongst businesses and corporations everywhere around the world. These CCTVs are installed in order to protect business interests such as expensive hardware, products or sensitive areas like a bank’s safe. However, with the implementation of CCTV powered surveillance systems in public places, the rise of ethical issues tend to occur.

Society’s Concern on CCTV Surveillance

1.      Privacy

The worry of privacy intrusion has always been the case when it comes to surveillance systems. According to Gill and Spriggs (2005), the issue of civil liberties and the degree to which respondents felt that CCTV was an invasion of privacy is a long-standing issue raised with the use of surveillance systems. The people subject to observation are often questioning the invasion of privacy that is brought upon by the unknown recording of their activities by observing parties.

2.      Crime rates

One of the main purposes of implementing the use of CCTVs in surveillance systems is in order to prevent crime. This is done by providing a warning that potential criminals are being watched and acts as a deterrent for them to actually carry out the crime. This however does not effectively diminish the act of crimes because CCTVs are also destroyed through vandalism.

The implementation of visual recording through the use of CCTVs does provide a means to prosecute offenders of the law by providing visual evidence to the police or authority in charge. It also stands as very solid evidence in courts of law. The method of retrieval is questionable when it comes to breach of privacy that is protected by yet another law.

Ethical Challenges

The use of CCTV technology has raised ethical issues. Russell (2012) states that these ethical concerns are:

1.      the lack of privacy protection

Society has raised their issue and in turn new rules and regulations were made to protect individual rights and freedoms. These new rules specify the need to regulate the use and output of information captured by CCTV surveillance systems. Carli(2008) states that “Politicians who abide by CCTV as an effective and successful method in the field of crime prevention, suggest that the presence of CCTV systems in public spaces act as a deterrence to criminals or potential offenders. Therefore, innocent individuals should not be bothered by its presence.”

2.      the repression of individual liberties for the ‘greater good’

Carli (2008) says that the mentality that is used to convince the public that the public CCTV are used for a specific reason and does not violate the public’s privacy or civil rights is that the cameras target offenders and thus offer no harm to the general public. She continues to say that “this mentality in fact poses an ethical concern, which assumes that in general individuals are innocent and must give up some liberties for the ‘greater good’ (to detect the ‘rotten apples in society’).”

3.      mounting fears of insecurity.

The public realizes the potential threat to privacy and personal data caused by the development of technology. This is also caused by the ambiguous accountability when it comes to controlling, monitoring and assessing data from CCTV systems.

The Effects of Surveillance Cameras in Public Places Privacy

·     Marcus Nieto of the California Research Bureau said, "The U.S. Fifth Circuit Court noted that 'this type of surveillance provokes an immediate negative visceral reaction: indiscriminate video surveillance raises the specter of the Orwellian State.'" However, he notes that police officers would patrol the same public areas the cameras survey. According to the New York Civil Liberties Union, dissenters claim that the cameras are too widespread as to create an infrastructure that is not being overseen or held accountable by any governing entity.

Offender Awareness

Since surveillance cameras in public areas are not always monitored, their effectiveness depends on public awareness of the camera, as well as individual offender awareness. A study by Honess and Charman (1992) said that 45 percent of people surveyed in a town center did not believe surveillance cameras were effective in reducing fear of crime. In addition, according to the U.S. Department of Justice, the theory behind the effectiveness of surveillance cameras hinges on the rational thinking of potential criminals, who might be mentally ill or under the influence of alcohol or other drugs.

Detection through Surveillance

Surveillance cameras in public places can be used either to review footage or find information to help make an arrest or to detect and respond to crimes as they are occurring. The success of these techniques is dependent partially on the availability of responding resources. CCTV systems can provide warning signs of potential criminal offences and act as a reactive tool.

CCTV monitors crowds and individuals, responds to threats and thus notifies the operator(s) of

harmful behaviour and actions before, during and after the occurrence of an event. For example, video surveillance cameras have been extremely useful in identifying the offenders of crimes apart from statements from witnesses. Furthermore, they can be an effective tool for surveying ‘sensitive’ areas when other security forces are not available.

Society’s Ethical Stance on the Use of CCTV in Public Places

It is certain that privacy is the main concern of the society on the implementation of CCTV in places they frequent on a daily basis. Macnish (2011) said that “Privacy is also of value to society at large. As noted, we may appear in public safe in the knowledge that our weaknesses are not on display for all to see, allowing for confident personal interaction. When we vote we do so in the belief that no-one can see our decision and treat us well or poorly in the light of how we voted.”

In the United Kingdom, a research was carried out by Gill and Spriggs (2005) to obtain feedback from the society in multiple cities on the implementation of CCTV surveillance systems and the finding of the research stated that “…levels of concern over privacy, which were low before the installation of CCTV, remained low afterwards.” The society is therefore inclined to the placement of CCTV powered surveillance systems in public places.

According to Ratcliffe (2006), in the United States, the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution protects citizens from “unreasonable searches and seizures by law enforcement and other government agencies”. He continues to state that “The emphasis is on the protection of people, not places. As a result, at least in terms of clearly public places, citizens cannot have an expectation of privacy.”

References

1.      Carli, V. (2008). Assessing CCTV as an Effective Safety and Management Tool for crime-solving, prevention and reduction . Retrieved from: http://www.ehow.com/list_6956949_effects-surveillance-cameras-public-places.html#ixzz2BKCOovGN

2.      CCTV and Surveillance (n.d.). Public Reaction to CCTV. Retrieved on October 24, 2012 from http://www.cctvandsurveillance.com/public.php

3.      Gill, M. & Spriggs, A. (2005). Assessing the impact of CCTV. Retrieved on October 24, 2012 from https://www.cctvusergroup.com/downloads/file/Martin%20gill.pdf

4.      Honess, T. & Charman, E., (1992). Closed Circuit Television in Public Places: Its Acceptability and Perceived Effectiveness, Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper No. 35, London:Home Office Police Department.

5.      Macnish, K. (2011). Surveillance Ethics. Retrieved on October 28, 2012 from http://www.iep.utm.edu/surv-eth/

6.      Ratcliffe, J. (2006). Video Surveillance of Public Places. Retrieved on October 19, 2012 from http://www.popcenter.org/responses/video_surveillance/6

7.      Rouse, M. (2012) CCTV (closed circuit television). Retrieved on October 17, 2012 from http://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/CCTV.

8.      Russell, E. M. (2012). The Effects of Surveillance Cameras in Public Places. Retrieved on October 25 2012 from: http://www.crime-prevention-intl.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Assessing_CCTV_as_an_effective_safety_and_management_tool_ANG.pdf